Skip to main content

SQL Dialects: MySQL vs PostgreSQL vs SQL Server vs SQLite

You have set up your SQL environment and started writing your first queries. But as you explore tutorials, documentation, and Stack Overflow answers, you quickly notice something confusing: the same task is often written differently depending on which database system the author is using. One tutorial uses SERIAL, another uses AUTO_INCREMENT, and a third uses IDENTITY. All three accomplish the same thing. What is going on?

The answer lies in SQL dialects. While SQL is a standardized language, every major database system implements its own variation of that standard, adding unique features, syntax quirks, and extensions. Understanding these differences is essential for any developer who wants to write effective SQL, follow the right documentation, and make informed decisions about which database to use.

This guide breaks down the ANSI SQL standard, compares the four most popular SQL dialects (MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, and SQLite), highlights their key differences with practical examples, and helps you choose the right one for your learning journey.

What Is ANSI SQL?​

Before comparing dialects, you need to understand the common foundation they all share.

ANSI SQL (also called Standard SQL or ISO SQL) is the official SQL specification maintained by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Think of it as the "official rulebook" for the SQL language.

ANSI SQL defines the core syntax and behavior for operations like:

  • Selecting data with SELECT
  • Filtering with WHERE
  • Joining tables with JOIN
  • Aggregating with GROUP BY, COUNT(), SUM(), AVG()
  • Sorting with ORDER BY
  • Creating and altering tables with CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE

Any query written using pure ANSI SQL should work across all major database systems:

-- This is standard ANSI SQL and works everywhere
SELECT first_name, last_name, department
FROM employees
WHERE department = 'Engineering'
ORDER BY last_name ASC;

So Why Do Dialects Exist?​

If there is a standard, why does every database do things differently? Several reasons:

  1. The standard does not cover everything. ANSI SQL defines core operations but leaves many practical needs unaddressed, such as auto-incrementing IDs, limiting results, or handling JSON data. Each database fills these gaps with its own syntax.

  2. Historical reasons. Many database systems were developed before certain SQL standards were published, or independently of them. Their syntax became entrenched before a standard existed for that feature.

  3. Performance and innovation. Database vendors add proprietary extensions to differentiate their products, offering unique features that give developers more power and flexibility.

  4. Backward compatibility. Once millions of applications depend on a specific syntax, changing it to match a newer standard would break existing systems.

Think of It Like This

ANSI SQL is like standard English. MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, and SQLite are like American English, British English, Australian English, and South African English. They all follow the same core grammar, but each has its own vocabulary, spelling preferences, and unique expressions. A sentence written in "standard English" is understood everywhere, but each variant also has phrases the others might not recognize.

The Four Major SQL Dialects​

Let us look at each database system, what makes it unique, and where it shines.

MySQL​

MySQL is one of the most widely deployed databases in the world. Acquired by Oracle Corporation in 2010, it powers a huge portion of the web, including platforms like WordPress, Drupal, Joomla, and countless PHP-based applications.

AttributeDetails
DeveloperOracle Corporation (originally MySQL AB)
LicenseOpen source (GPL) + commercial options
Best forWeb applications, content management, startups
Default port3306
Notable usersFacebook, Twitter, YouTube, Netflix

Key characteristics:

  • Extremely fast for read-heavy workloads
  • Huge community and abundant learning resources
  • Multiple storage engines (InnoDB for transactions, MyISAM for speed)
  • Strong integration with PHP, Python, Node.js, and web frameworks
  • Simpler feature set compared to PostgreSQL, which makes it easier to get started with

PostgreSQL​

PostgreSQL (often called Postgres) is the most feature-rich open-source relational database. It is known for its strict adherence to SQL standards, extensibility, and support for advanced data types and operations.

AttributeDetails
DeveloperPostgreSQL Global Development Group
LicenseOpen source (PostgreSQL License, very permissive)
Best forComplex applications, analytics, geospatial data, standards compliance
Default port5432
Notable usersApple, Instagram, Spotify, Reddit

Key characteristics:

  • Closest to ANSI SQL of all major databases
  • Supports advanced features like window functions, CTEs, JSONB, arrays, full-text search, and custom types
  • Excellent data integrity with robust constraint support
  • Highly extensible with custom functions, operators, and extensions (e.g., PostGIS for geospatial data)
  • Strong concurrency handling with MVCC (Multi-Version Concurrency Control)

SQL Server​

Microsoft SQL Server (often abbreviated as MSSQL) is Microsoft's enterprise-grade relational database. It is deeply integrated with the Microsoft ecosystem and widely used in corporate environments.

AttributeDetails
DeveloperMicrosoft
LicenseCommercial (free Express edition available)
Best forEnterprise applications, .NET ecosystems, business intelligence
Default port1433
Notable usersStack Overflow, Dell, Accenture

Key characteristics:

  • Tight integration with Windows, Azure, .NET, and Visual Studio
  • Powerful business intelligence tools (SSRS, SSIS, SSAS)
  • Uses T-SQL (Transact-SQL), Microsoft's extended SQL dialect
  • SQL Server Express is free and suitable for learning and small projects
  • Excellent tooling with SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS)

SQLite​

SQLite is a fundamentally different kind of database. Instead of running as a server, it stores the entire database in a single file on disk. It requires zero configuration and zero administration.

AttributeDetails
DeveloperD. Richard Hipp
LicensePublic domain
Best forEmbedded applications, mobile apps, prototyping, learning
Default portN/A (file-based, no server)
Notable usersEvery smartphone (iOS and Android), web browsers, Skype

Key characteristics:

  • No server required. The database is a single .db file
  • Zero configuration. No users, no permissions, no setup
  • Pre-installed on macOS, Linux, iOS, Android, and most systems
  • The most widely deployed database in the world (billions of instances)
  • Excellent for learning SQL, prototyping, and embedded use
  • Limited concurrency (not designed for many simultaneous writers)

Key Differences Between SQL Dialects​

Now let us get into the practical, side-by-side differences you will encounter when writing SQL across these four systems.

Auto-Incrementing Primary Keys​

One of the first differences every beginner encounters is how each database handles automatically generated IDs.

-- MySQL
CREATE TABLE users (
    id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
    name VARCHAR(100)
);

-- PostgreSQL
CREATE TABLE users (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    name VARCHAR(100)
);

-- PostgreSQL (modern syntax, preferred in newer versions)
CREATE TABLE users (
    id INTEGER GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
    name VARCHAR(100)
);

-- SQL Server
CREATE TABLE users (
    id INT IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
    name VARCHAR(100)
);

-- SQLite
CREATE TABLE users (
    id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
    name TEXT
);

All five statements accomplish the same goal: create a users table where the id column automatically increments with each new row. But the syntax is completely different.

PostgreSQL's GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY

PostgreSQL supports both SERIAL and the newer GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY syntax. The latter is the ANSI SQL standard way to define auto-incrementing columns and is recommended for new projects. However, SERIAL remains extremely common in tutorials and existing codebases.

Limiting Query Results​

Retrieving only a specific number of rows is one of the most common operations, and it varies significantly across dialects.

-- MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite
SELECT name, price
FROM products
ORDER BY price DESC
LIMIT 5;

-- SQL Server (modern syntax)
SELECT TOP 5 name, price
FROM products
ORDER BY price DESC;

-- SQL Server (alternative using ANSI standard)
SELECT name, price
FROM products
ORDER BY price DESC
OFFSET 0 ROWS FETCH NEXT 5 ROWS ONLY;

MySQL, PostgreSQL, and SQLite all use the LIMIT clause, placed at the end of the query. SQL Server uses TOP placed after SELECT, or the more verbose but ANSI-compliant OFFSET...FETCH syntax.

Pagination (Skipping Rows)​

When building features like "page 2 of search results," you need to skip rows:

-- MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQLite: Skip 10 rows, then get 10
SELECT name, price
FROM products
ORDER BY price DESC
LIMIT 10 OFFSET 10;

-- SQL Server
SELECT name, price
FROM products
ORDER BY price DESC
OFFSET 10 ROWS FETCH NEXT 10 ROWS ONLY;

String Concatenation​

Combining strings is handled differently across dialects:

-- PostgreSQL, SQLite
SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name AS full_name
FROM customers;

-- MySQL
SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name
FROM customers;

-- SQL Server
SELECT first_name + ' ' + last_name AS full_name
FROM customers;
-- SQL Server also supports CONCAT():
SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name
FROM customers;
NULL Behavior in Concatenation

This is a subtle but important difference. If any part of the concatenation is NULL, the behavior varies:

-- Assume middle_name is NULL for a row

-- PostgreSQL, SQLite: The entire result becomes NULL
SELECT first_name || ' ' || middle_name || ' ' || last_name
FROM customers;
-- Result: NULL

-- MySQL CONCAT(): The entire result also becomes NULL
SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', middle_name, ' ', last_name)
FROM customers;
-- Result: NULL

-- MySQL CONCAT_WS() handles NULLs gracefully (skips them)
SELECT CONCAT_WS(' ', first_name, middle_name, last_name)
FROM customers;
-- Result: 'Alice Johnson' (middle_name is simply skipped)

When concatenating values that might be NULL, use COALESCE() to provide a fallback:

-- Works in all dialects
SELECT first_name || ' ' || COALESCE(middle_name, '') || ' ' || last_name
FROM customers;

Getting the Current Date and Time​

-- MySQL
SELECT NOW();                    -- Date and time
SELECT CURDATE();                -- Date only
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;        -- ANSI standard, also works

-- PostgreSQL
SELECT NOW();                    -- Date and time with timezone
SELECT CURRENT_DATE;             -- Date only
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;        -- ANSI standard

-- SQL Server
SELECT GETDATE();                -- Date and time
SELECT CAST(GETDATE() AS DATE);  -- Date only
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;        -- ANSI standard, also works

-- SQLite
SELECT datetime('now');          -- Date and time
SELECT date('now');              -- Date only
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;        -- ANSI standard, also works

Notice that CURRENT_TIMESTAMP (the ANSI standard) works in all four databases. When a standard syntax exists, prefer it for portability.

Conditional Logic (IF/CASE)​

-- CASE expression: Works in ALL dialects (ANSI standard)
SELECT name,
       price,
       CASE
           WHEN price > 100 THEN 'Premium'
           WHEN price > 50 THEN 'Mid-Range'
           ELSE 'Budget'
       END AS price_tier
FROM products;

-- MySQL has a shorthand IF() function
SELECT name,
       IF(price > 100, 'Expensive', 'Affordable') AS label
FROM products;

-- SQL Server has IIF() (similar to MySQL's IF)
SELECT name,
       IIF(price > 100, 'Expensive', 'Affordable') AS label
FROM products;

Best practice: Use CASE expressions whenever possible. They are part of the ANSI standard and work identically in every dialect.

Handling Boolean Values​

-- PostgreSQL: Native BOOLEAN type
CREATE TABLE tasks (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    title VARCHAR(200),
    is_done BOOLEAN DEFAULT false
);
INSERT INTO tasks (title, is_done) VALUES ('Learn SQL', true);
SELECT * FROM tasks WHERE is_done = true;

-- MySQL: Uses TINYINT(1), but accepts TRUE/FALSE keywords
CREATE TABLE tasks (
    id INT AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY,
    title VARCHAR(200),
    is_done BOOLEAN DEFAULT false
);
INSERT INTO tasks (title, is_done) VALUES ('Learn SQL', true);
SELECT * FROM tasks WHERE is_done = 1;  -- or WHERE is_done = TRUE

-- SQL Server: Uses BIT type
CREATE TABLE tasks (
    id INT IDENTITY(1,1) PRIMARY KEY,
    title VARCHAR(200),
    is_done BIT DEFAULT 0
);
INSERT INTO tasks (title, is_done) VALUES ('Learn SQL', 1);
SELECT * FROM tasks WHERE is_done = 1;

-- SQLite: No dedicated boolean type, uses 0 and 1
CREATE TABLE tasks (
    id INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT,
    title TEXT,
    is_done INTEGER DEFAULT 0
);
INSERT INTO tasks (title, is_done) VALUES ('Learn SQL', 1);
SELECT * FROM tasks WHERE is_done = 1;

String Functions​

Common string operations have different names across dialects:

OperationMySQLPostgreSQLSQL ServerSQLite
String lengthLENGTH() or CHAR_LENGTH()LENGTH() or CHAR_LENGTH()LEN()LENGTH()
SubstringSUBSTRING(str, pos, len)SUBSTRING(str FROM pos FOR len)SUBSTRING(str, pos, len)SUBSTR(str, pos, len)
LowercaseLOWER()LOWER()LOWER()LOWER()
UppercaseUPPER()UPPER()UPPER()UPPER()
Trim whitespaceTRIM()TRIM()TRIM() or LTRIM()/RTRIM()TRIM()
Find positionLOCATE(substr, str)POSITION(substr IN str)CHARINDEX(substr, str)INSTR(str, substr)

Inserting and Returning the New ID​

After inserting a row, you often need to retrieve the auto-generated ID. Each dialect handles this differently:

-- PostgreSQL: RETURNING clause (the most elegant approach)
INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES ('Alice')
RETURNING id;
-- Immediately returns: id = 1

-- MySQL: Use LAST_INSERT_ID() after the insert
INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES ('Alice');
SELECT LAST_INSERT_ID();

-- SQL Server: Use SCOPE_IDENTITY() or OUTPUT clause
INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES ('Alice');
SELECT SCOPE_IDENTITY();

-- Or with OUTPUT:
INSERT INTO users (name)
OUTPUT INSERTED.id
VALUES ('Alice');

-- SQLite: Use last_insert_rowid()
INSERT INTO users (name) VALUES ('Alice');
SELECT last_insert_rowid();
PostgreSQL's RETURNING Clause

The RETURNING clause is one of PostgreSQL's standout features. It lets you retrieve any columns from the newly inserted, updated, or deleted rows in a single statement. This avoids the need for a separate query and reduces round trips to the database.

-- Return multiple columns from an insert
INSERT INTO products (name, price)
VALUES ('New Widget', 29.99)
RETURNING id, name, price;

-- Even works with UPDATE and DELETE
UPDATE products SET price = 34.99 WHERE id = 1
RETURNING id, name, price;

UPSERT (Insert or Update)​

A very common need is to insert a row if it does not exist, or update it if it does. Every dialect has a different syntax:

-- MySQL: INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE
INSERT INTO products (id, name, price)
VALUES (1, 'Wireless Mouse', 31.99)
ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE price = 31.99;

-- PostgreSQL: INSERT ... ON CONFLICT
INSERT INTO products (id, name, price)
VALUES (1, 'Wireless Mouse', 31.99)
ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE SET price = 31.99;

-- SQLite: INSERT ... ON CONFLICT (similar to PostgreSQL)
INSERT INTO products (id, name, price)
VALUES (1, 'Wireless Mouse', 31.99)
ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE SET price = 31.99;

-- SQL Server: MERGE statement
MERGE INTO products AS target
USING (VALUES (1, 'Wireless Mouse', 31.99)) AS source (id, name, price)
ON target.id = source.id
WHEN MATCHED THEN UPDATE SET price = source.price
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN INSERT (id, name, price) VALUES (source.id, source.name, source.price);

Quick Reference: Dialect Comparison Table​

Here is a comprehensive side-by-side comparison for the most common operations:

FeatureMySQLPostgreSQLSQL ServerSQLite
Auto-incrementAUTO_INCREMENTSERIAL / GENERATED AS IDENTITYIDENTITY(1,1)AUTOINCREMENT
Limit rowsLIMIT nLIMIT nTOP n / FETCH NEXT n ROWS ONLYLIMIT n
String concatCONCAT()||+ or CONCAT()||
Current timeNOW()NOW()GETDATE()datetime('now')
Boolean typeTINYINT(1)BOOLEANBITINTEGER (0/1)
Get last IDLAST_INSERT_ID()RETURNING idSCOPE_IDENTITY()last_insert_rowid()
UpsertON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATEON CONFLICT DO UPDATEMERGEON CONFLICT DO UPDATE
JSON supportJSON type + functionsJSON / JSONB types + functionsJSON functionsJSON functions (3.38+)
Default string typeVARCHARVARCHAR / TEXTVARCHAR / NVARCHARTEXT
Case sensitiveDepends on collationYes (by default)No (by default)Yes (by default)

Which SQL Dialect Should You Learn First?​

This is one of the most frequently asked questions by beginners, and the answer is simpler than you might expect.

The Core Truth: Learn Standard SQL First​

Regardless of which database you choose, 80-90% of what you write will be standard SQL that works everywhere. SELECT, WHERE, JOIN, GROUP BY, ORDER BY, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, CREATE TABLE all work the same way across all four dialects.

The dialect-specific differences matter, but they are details you pick up naturally as you work with a specific database. Focus on mastering the fundamentals first.

Recommendation: Start with PostgreSQL or MySQL​

For beginners, the two best choices are PostgreSQL and MySQL. Here is how to decide between them.

Choose PostgreSQL if:

  • You want to learn the most standards-compliant SQL
  • You plan to work with complex queries, analytics, or advanced features
  • You value data integrity and strict type checking
  • You want skills that translate well to any other database
  • You are interested in backend development with Python, Ruby, or Go

Choose MySQL if:

  • You want the largest community and the most tutorials available
  • You are learning web development (especially with PHP, WordPress, or Laravel)
  • You prefer a simpler, more forgiving learning experience
  • You want something that is quick to set up and easy to manage
  • You plan to work in environments where MySQL is already in use
Our Recommendation

If you have no specific reason to choose one over the other, start with PostgreSQL. Its strict adherence to SQL standards means the habits you build will transfer cleanly to any other database. It also supports nearly every modern SQL feature (window functions, CTEs, JSONB, arrays, full-text search), so you will not hit limitations as your skills grow.

That said, you genuinely cannot go wrong with either choice. Both are excellent, widely used, and will serve you well throughout your career.

When to Use SQL Server​

Choose SQL Server if you work in a Microsoft-centric environment (.NET, Azure, C#, Windows Server). In enterprise settings, especially in industries like finance, healthcare, and government, SQL Server is often the default choice. The free Express edition is perfectly adequate for learning.

When to Use SQLite​

Choose SQLite for learning fundamentals quickly without any setup friction, for embedded applications (mobile apps, desktop software), or for prototyping. SQLite is not ideal for production web applications with many concurrent users, but it is unbeatable for getting started fast.

A Practical Learning Path​

Here is a recommended progression:

  1. Start with SQLite (zero setup, instant practice)
  2. Move to PostgreSQL or MySQL (real server experience, full feature set)
  3. Learn the dialect differences as you encounter them in real projects
  4. Pick up SQL Server if your job or project requires it

Writing Portable SQL: Best Practices​

If you want your SQL skills to transfer smoothly between dialects, follow these guidelines:

Use ANSI Standard Syntax When Possible​

-- Prefer ANSI standard CASE over dialect-specific functions
-- Good: Works everywhere
SELECT name,
       CASE WHEN price > 100 THEN 'Premium' ELSE 'Standard' END AS tier
FROM products;

-- Avoid: MySQL-specific
SELECT name,
       IF(price > 100, 'Premium', 'Standard') AS tier
FROM products;

Use ANSI Joins Instead of Implicit Joins​

-- Good: Explicit ANSI JOIN (works everywhere, clear intent)
SELECT c.first_name, o.order_date, o.total_amount
FROM customers c
JOIN orders o ON c.id = o.customer_id;

-- Avoid: Implicit join (older syntax, harder to read, error-prone)
SELECT c.first_name, o.order_date, o.total_amount
FROM customers c, orders o
WHERE c.id = o.customer_id;

Use Standard Data Types​

-- Good: Standard types recognized everywhere
INTEGER, VARCHAR(n), DECIMAL(p,s), DATE, TIMESTAMP

-- Dialect-specific types to be aware of
-- PostgreSQL: SERIAL, TEXT (no limit), JSONB, UUID, ARRAY
-- MySQL: TINYINT, ENUM, SET, MEDIUMTEXT
-- SQL Server: NVARCHAR, UNIQUEIDENTIFIER, DATETIME2, BIT
-- SQLite: Everything is essentially TEXT, INTEGER, REAL, or BLOB

Comment Your Dialect-Specific Code​

When you must use dialect-specific syntax, leave a comment so future developers (or future you) understand the dependency:

-- PostgreSQL-specific: RETURNING clause
INSERT INTO users (name, email)
VALUES ('Alice', 'alice@example.com')
RETURNING id;  -- NOTE: PostgreSQL only. Use LAST_INSERT_ID() in MySQL.

Summary​

SQL dialects are variations of the same core language, each tailored to the strengths and design philosophy of its database system. Here are the key takeaways from this guide:

  • ANSI SQL is the universal standard that all dialects share. Master it first, and you will be productive in any database system.
  • MySQL excels in web development, offers simplicity, and has the largest community of tutorials and resources.
  • PostgreSQL is the most standards-compliant and feature-rich open-source database, making it an excellent choice for building strong SQL habits.
  • SQL Server dominates in Microsoft and enterprise environments, offering powerful business intelligence tools and tight .NET integration.
  • SQLite is the simplest and most portable option, perfect for learning, prototyping, and embedded applications.
  • The differences between dialects are real but manageable. They mostly involve syntax variations for features like auto-incrementing keys, limiting results, concatenating strings, and handling data types.
  • 80-90% of your SQL knowledge transfers directly between any of these databases. The fundamentals are universal.

Choose one database, learn the fundamentals deeply, and trust that your skills will carry over when you eventually work with a different system. The dialect differences will feel like minor vocabulary changes rather than learning a new language.

Table of Contents